LAWIN

Author: E. Encyclopedia

  • Modern Cities

    Modern CitiesA notable trend of the 19th and 20th centuries has been the constant growth of urban communities at the expense of rural districts. City populations represent an increasing proportion of the total national populations not only in highly industrialized nations but also in agrari…

  • How Bonds Work

    How Bonds WorkA bond's principal, or face value, represents the amount of the original loan that is to be repaid on the bond's maturity date. The interest that the issuer agrees to pay each year is known as the coupon, a term derived from the obsolete practice of attaching coupons t…

  • Open And Closed Adoptions

    Open and Closed AdoptionsAdoptions may be open or closed. An open adoption involves some exchange of personal information. At the very least, one party will furnish information relevant to the child's future well-being, such as medical history or financial status. In some cases, the bio…

  • Political Constitution

    Political Constitution Constitution, in politics, fundamental system of law, written or unwritten, of a sovereign state, established or accepted as a guide for governing the state. A constitution fixes the limits and defines the relations of the legislative, judicial, and executive powers o…

  • Most-Favored-Nation Clause

    Commercial Treaties: Most-Favored-Nation ClauseThe most-favored-nation clause stipulates that a nation will extend to other signatories treatment comparable to that accorded any other nation with which it has, or may have in the future, a commercial treaty. Under such a clause, all existing…

  • Labor Arbitration

    Labor ArbitrationIn the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act, Congress declared that arbitration was the "desirable method for settlement of grievance disputes arising over the application or interpretation of an existing collective bargaining agreement" (see National Labor Relations Act). Build…

  • Physiocrats

    Capitalism Beginnings of Modern Capitalism The PhysiocratsPhysiocracy is the term applied to a school of economic thought that suggested the existence of a natural order in economics, one that does not require direction from the state for people to be prosperous. The leader of the physiocra…

  • International Codes

    Code: International CodesAttempts at defining a code of international public and private law have not been successful. The League of Nations failed in its attempt to do so. The United Nations has established a commission to study the possible codification of various aspects of internationa…

  • Marxist-Leninist States

    Communism: Features of Comunist States Marxist-Leninist IdeologyA root feature of communist states has been their subscription to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism. As fashioned by Lenin, building on the earlier works of Marx and Engels, it is the belief that history advances by means of cla…

  • Protestant Censorship

    Early Church Censorship: Protestant CensorshipThe Protestant Reformation did not itself erect a change in the practice of censorship. Its leaders-among them John Calvin, John Knox, and Martin Luther-claimed liberty of conscience and toleration only for themselves and their followers. When i…

  • Modern Capitalism Beginnings

    Capitalism Beginnings of Modern CapitalismTwo developments paved the way for the emergence of modern capitalism; both took place in the latter half of the 18th century. The first was the appearance of the physiocrats in France after 1750; and the second was the devastating impact that the i…

  • Psychological Stress And Adoption Support Groups

    Psychological Stress and Adoption Support GroupsPeople who find that they cannot give birth to children often grieve for the biological children they might have had. Once the grieving process is over, many people who desire to become parents seek to adopt. The adoption process itself can be…

  • Intergenerational Transmission Of Violence

    Child Abuse Cause Intergenerational Transmission of ViolenceMany children learn violent behavior from their parents and then grow up to abuse their own children. Thus, the abusive behavior is transmitted across generations. Studies show that some 30 percent of abused children become abusive…

  • Industrialization Rise

    Capitalism The rise of IndustrializationThe ideas of Smith and the physiocrats provided the ideological and intellectual background for the Industrial Revolution-the material side of the sweeping transformations in society and the world that characterized the 19th century. No precise date c…

  • Modern City Planning

    City Planning Modern City PlanningCity planning in the U.S. and other countries broadened in the late 1960s beyond a purely physical orientation. In its modern form, city planning is an ongoing process that concerns not only physical design but also social, economic, and political policy is…