International Ocean Law

Maritime Law International Ocean Law

Introduction to International Ocean Law

Some aspects of ocean law affect relationships among nations. Issues of neutrality and belligerency that occur in wartime are dealt with in international law. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted in 1982 but not yet in force, addresses ocean law issues, including rights of navigation and overflight, fishing, marine scientific research, seabed minerals development, and marine environmental protection. It allows each coastal nation to exercise sovereignty over a territorial sea up to 12 nautical miles (22 km/14 mi) wide and jurisdiction over resources, scientific research, and environmental protection in an exclusive economic zone up to 200 nautical miles (370 km/230 mi) offshore; beyond this zone, seabed minerals development will be regulated by an international body. The U.S. has not signed the accord because it objects to the system for minerals development in the international seabed, but it has generally endorsed all other provisions of the convention.” (1)

International Regulation of Ocean Pollution

A 2001 report from the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection specifies:

“Almost all of the problems of the oceans start on land. It is here that virtually all of the pollution originates, whether from factories and sewage works at the coasts, from fertiliser or pesticides washed into rivers and down to the sea, or from metals and chemicals emitted from car exhausts and industry and carried by the winds far out to the oceans.”

International Regulation of Ocean Fisheries

Ludwig, Hilborn, and Walters, in an article tituled “Uncertainty, Resource Exploitation, and Conservation: Lessons in History” published in Sciences (1993), wrote the following in relation to fisheries management:

“Although there is considerable variation in detail, there is remarkable consistency in the history of resource exploitation; resources are inevitably overexploited, often to the point of collapse or extinction. We suggest that such consistency is due to the following common features: (i) Wealth or the prospect of wealth generates political and social power that is used to promote unlimited exploitation of resources. (ii) Scientific understanding and consensus is hampered by the lack of controls and replicates, so that each new problem involves learning about a new system. (iii) The complexity of the underlying biological and physical systems precludes a reductionist approach to management. Optimum levels of exploitation must be determined by trial and error. (iv) Large levels of natural variability mask the effects of overexploitation. Initial overexploitation is not detectable until it is severe and often irreversible.”

Resources

Notes and References

• Information about International Ocean Law in the Encarta Online Encyclopedia

Further Reading

• Acheson, J.M., and Wilson, J.A. (1996) Order out of Chaos: The Case for Parametric Fisheries Management. American Anthropologist 98, 579–94.
• Alcock, F. (2002) Bargaining, Uncertainty, and Property Rights in Fisheries. World Politics 54, 437–61.
• Alexander, L. (1968) Geography and the Law of the Sea. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 58, 177–97.
• Anand, R.P. (1981) Maritime Practice in South-East Asia until 1600 ad and the Modern Law of the Sea. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 30, 440–54.
• Armitage, D. (1997) Making the Empire British: Scotland in the Atlantic World 1542–1707. Past and Present 155 (May), 34–63.
• Bailey, J.L. (1996) Hot Fish and (Bargaining) Chips. Journal of Peace Research 33, 257–62.
• Berkes, F., and Folke, A.C. (2002) Back to the Future: Ecosystem Dynamics and Local Knowledge. In L.H. Gunderson and C.S. Holling (eds.) Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Washington, DC: Island Press, pp. 121–46.
• Bigg, G. (2003) The Oceans and Climate, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Borgese, E.M. (1998) The Oceanic Circle: Governing the Seas as a Global Resource. New York: United Nations University Press.
• Broadus, J., and Vartanov, R. (eds.) (1994) The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared US and Russian Perspectives. Washington, DC: Island Press.
• Brunstrom, B., and Halldin, K. (2000) Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment of Environmental Pollutants in the Arctic. Toxicology Letters 112, 111–18.
• Burke, W.T. (1994) The New International Law of Fisheries: UNCLOS 1982 and Beyond. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Churchill, R.R. (1975) The Fisheries Jurisdiction Cases: The Contribution of the International Court of Justice to the Debate on Coastal States’ Fisheries Rights. International and Comparative Law Quarterly 24, 82–105.
• Colwell, R.R. (2006) Cholera Outbreaks and Ocean Climate. Social Research 73, 753–65.
• Costanza, R. (2000) The Ecological, Economic, and Social Importance of the Oceans. New York: Pergamon Press.
• Davis, W.J. (1993) The Need for a New Ocean Governance System. In J.V. Dyke, D. Zaelke, and G. Hewison (eds.) Freedom for the Seas in the Twenty-First Century. Washington, DC: Island Press.
• Desch, M., Domínguez, J., and Serbin, A. (eds.) (1998) From Pirates to Drug Lords: The Post-Cold War Caribbean Security Environment. Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Desombre, E.R. (2005) Fishing under Flags of Convenience: Using Market Power to Increase Participation in International Regulation. Global Environmental Politics 5, 73–94.
• Diaz, R.J., and Rosenberg, R. (2008) Spreading Dead Zones and Consequences for Marine Ecosystems. Science 321, 926–9.
• Dietz, T., Ostrom, E., and Stern, P.C. (2003) The Struggle to Govern the Commons. Science 302, 2–12.
• Douglas, B., Kearney, M., and Leatherman, A.S. (2001) Sea Level Rise: History and Consequence. New York: Academic Press.
• Eagle, J., and Thomson, B.N. (2003) Answering Lord Petty’s Question: Dissecting Regulatory Overfishing. Ocean and Coastal Management 46, 649–79.
• Ebbin, S., Hoel, A.H., and Sydnes, A.K. (eds.) (2005) A Sea Change: The Exclusive Economic Zone and Governance Institutions for Living Marine Resources. Dordrecht, Netherlands/Norwell, MA: Springer.
• Essington, T.E., Beaudreau, A.H., and Wiedenmann, J. (2006) Fishing Through Marine Food Webs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103, 3171–5.
• FAO (2007) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
• FSA (1995) The United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, in force December 11, 2001.
• GESAMP (2001a) Protecting the Oceans from Land-based Activities. GESAMP Reports and Studies 71. GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection) and Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea.
• GESAMP (2001b) A Sea of Troubles. GESAMP Reports and Studies 70. GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection) and Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea.
• Grassl, H. (2001) Climate and Oceans. New York: Academic Press.
• Grotius, H. (1916) The Freedom of the Seas; or, The Right Which Belongs to the Dutch to Take Part in the East Indian Trade, ed. J.B. Scott. New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace/Oxford University Press.
• Haas, P.M. (1989) Do Regimes Matter? Epistemic Communities and Mediterranean Pollution Control. International Organization 43, 377–403.
• Halpern, B.S. et al. (2008) A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems. Science 319, 948–52.
• Hardin, G. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. Science 162, 43–8.
• Hilborn, R., Branch, T.A., Ernst, B., Magnusson, A., Minte-Vera, C.V., Scheuerell, M.D., and Valero, J.L. (2003) State of the World’s Fisheries. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28, 359–99.
• Hughes, T.P. et al. (2003) Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs. Science 301, 929–33.
• Hunter, D., Zaelke, D., and Salzman J. (eds.) (2006) International Environmental Law and Policy. Boulder, CO: West Group.
• Jackson, J.B.C. (2001) What was Natural in the Coastal Oceans? PNAS 98, 5411–18.
• Jackson, J.B. et al. (2001) Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems. Science 293, 629–39.
• Jackson, M. (1993) Indigenous Law and the Sea. Washington, DC: Island Press.
• Jacques, P.J. (2006) Globalization and the World Ocean. Lanham, MD: AltaMira/Rowman and Littlefield.
• Jacques, P. (2009) The Power and Death of the Sea. In G. Kütting, and R.D. Lipschutz (eds.) Environmental Governance: Power and Knowledge in a Local-Global World. New York: Routledge, pp. 60–78.
• Jacques P.J., and Smith, Z.A. (2003) Ocean Politics and Policy: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC/Clio.
• Jiang, Y. et al. (2001) Megacity Developments: Managing Impacts on the Marine Environment. Ocean and Coastal Development 44, 293–318.
• Johnston, D.M. (1987) The International Law of Fisheries: A Framework for Policy-Oriented Inquiry. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Juda, L. (1996) International Law and Ocean Use Management: The Evolution of Ocean Governance. New York: Routledge.
• Karim, M.F., and Mimura, N. (2008) Impacts of Climate Change and Sea-level Rise on Cyclonic Storm Surge Floods in Bangladesh. Global Environmental Change 18, 490–500.
• Kirkman, H. (2006) East Asian Seas UNEP Regional Seas Programme. International Environmental Agreements 6, 305–16.
• Kütting, G. (2000) Environment, Society, and International Relations: Towards More Effective International Environmental Agreements. New York: Routledge.
• Lehodey, P. et al. (2006) Climate Variability, Fish, and Fisheries. Journal of Climate 19, 5009–30.
• London Dumping Convention (1972) Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, in force Aug. 30, 1975.
• Lubchenko, J. (1998) Entering the Century of the Environment: A New Social Contract for the Environment. Science 279, 491–7.
• Lubchenko, J. (2003) Waves of the Future: Sea Changes for a Sustainable World. Washington, DC: Island Press.
• Ludwig, D., Hilborn, R., and Walters, C. (1993) Uncertainty, Resource Exploitation, and Conservation: Lessons in History. Science 260(5104), 17–36.
• MacDonald, B. (2007) Management and Conservation of an Over-exploited Fishery Resource: The CCSBT Experience. Presentetion given at The Challenge of Change: Managing for Sustainability of Oceanic Top Predator Species, A National Science Foundation (NSF) – Community Building Workshop, Santa Barbara, CA.
• Mitchell, R. (1994) Regime Design Matters: Intentional Oil Pollution and Treaty Compliance. International Organization 48, 425–58.
• Nelson, L.D.M. (1973) The Patrimonial Sea. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 22, 668–86.
• Nicholls, R.J. et al. (2007) Coastal Systems and Low-lying Areas. In M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J.V.D. Linden, and C.E. Hanson (eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press pp. 315–56.
• NRC (1997) Striking a Balance: Improving Stewardship of Marine Areas. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• NRC Committee on the Human Dimensions of Climate Change (2002) The Drama of the Commons. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• Osherenko, G. (2007) New Discourses on Ocean Governance: Understanding Property Rights and the Public Trust, and Ocean Governance. Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 21, 317–81.
• OSPAR (2004) OSPAR Commission Background. The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
• Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolutions of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Overpeck, J.T., and Cole, J.E. (2006) Abrupt Change in Earth’s Climate System. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 31, 1–31.
• Oxman, B.H. (2006) The Territorial Temptation: A Siren Song at Sea. American Journal of International Law 100, 830–51.
• Paris Convention (1974) The Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources, in force May 6, 1978.
• Pauly, D. et al. (1998) Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science 279, 860–3.
• Peterson, M.J. (1993) International Fisheries Management. In P.M. Haas, R.O. Keohane, and M.A. Levy (eds.) Institutions of the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 249–305.
• Peterson, M.J. (2006) The United Nations General Assembly. New York: Routledge.
• Prager, E., and Earle, S. (2000) The Oceans. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Roberts, A.E. (2001) Traditional and Modern Approaches to Customary International Law: A Reconciliation. American Journal of International Law 95, 757–91.
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• Sand, P.H. (2004) Sovereignty Bounded: Public Trusteeship for Common Pool Resources? Global Environmental Politics 4, 47–71.
• Selden, J. (1972) Of the Dominion, Or, Ownership of the Sea, ed. L. Silk. Evolution of Capitalism. New York: Arno Press.
• Sherman, K. (2006) The Large Marine Ecosystem Network Approach to WSSD Targets. Ocean and Coastal Management 49, 640–8.
• Skjaerseth, J.B. (2006) Protecting the North-East Atlantic: Enhancing Synergies by Institutional Interplay. Marine Policy 30, 157–66.
• Spalding, M., Ravilious, C., and Green, A.E. (2001) World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Stokke, O.S. (2001) Governing High Sea Fisheries: The Interplay of Global and Regional Regimes. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Tan, A.K.-J. (2006) Vessel-source Marine Pollution. The Law and Politics of International Regulation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• VanDeveer, S., and Dabelko, G. (2001) It’s Capacity, Stupid: International Assistance and National Implementation. Global Environmental Politics 1, 18–29.
• Vieira, M.B. (2003) Mare Liberum vs. Mare Clausum: Grotius, Freitas, and Selden’s Debate on Dominion over the Seas. Journal of the History of Ideas 64, 361–77.
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• Wapner, P. (1996) Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Wilkinson, C. (2002) Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
• Young, O.R. (2001) The Behavioral Effects of Environmental Regimes: Collective-Action vs. Social-Practice Models. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 1, 9–29