Criminology Development

Introduction to Criminology Development

The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases, beginning in the 18th century. Although crime and criminals have been around for as long as societies have existed, the systematic study of these phenomena did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that time, most explanations of crime equated it with sin-the violation of a sacred obligation. When scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made possible explanations of criminal behavior that were not theological (religious). This, in turn, allowed for the dispassionate, scientific study of why crime occurs. The development of this study is now known as the era of classical criminology.

The second phase, which began in the 19th century, is referred to as modern criminology. During this era, criminology distinguished itself as a subspecialty within the emerging disciplines of psychology, sociology, and economics. Scholars formed criminological societies and founded criminology journals. Criminologists conducted empirical tests (observations or experiments) of their theories, rather than relying solely on speculation, and consequently developed a wide range of theories.

The third phase, beginning in the second half of the 20th century, may best be called independent criminology. During this period, criminology began to assert its independence from the traditional disciplines that spawned it. In Western Europe, the United States, and Canada, criminologists expanded their professional associations and published an increasing number of journals. A number of universities developed graduate programs in criminology. Criminological theories have become more multidisciplinary (spanning various fields of study) because independent criminologists seek to understand crime itself rather than study crime as one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological theory.” (1)

Development of Criminology: Classification in Australia and New Zealand

The Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification (ANZSRC) classified research according to type of activity, research fields, courses and disciplines, and socioeconomic objectives. In the classification, most legal research is included within the category of ‘Applied Research’.

Under Fields of Research appears the section or “Divison 18 LAW AND LEGAL STUDIES”, which, among others, excludes Criminology (including policing and correctional theory).

The Group 1602 Criminology (which belongs to the Section or Divison 16 STUDIES IN HUMAN SOCIETY, has seven subsections or fields:

• 160201 Causes and Prevention of Crime
• 160202 Correctional Theory, Offender Treatment and Rehabilitation
• 160203 Courts and Sentencing
• 160204 Criminological Theories
• 160205 Police Administration, Procedures and Practice
• 160206 Private Policing and Security Services
• 160299 Criminology not elsewhere classified

Exclusions of the criminology group are:

• Forensic statistics is included in Group 0104 Statistics.
• Forensic chemistry is included in Group 0399 Other Chemical Sciences.
• Forensic biology is included in Group 0699 Other Biological Sciences.
• Crime policy is included in Group 1605 Policy and Administration (which includes, among others, Education Policy, Environment Policy, Health Policy, Public Administration, Public Policy, Research, Science and Technology Policy and Social Policy).
• Forensic psychology is included in Group 1701 Psychology (which includes, among others, Gender Psychology and Social and Community Psychology).
• Criminal law is included in Group 1801 Law (as seen above).

Resources

Notes and References

• Information about Criminology Development in the Encarta Online Encyclopedia

See Also

• Social Problem
• Crime
• Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency
• Delinquent
• Social Issues
• Crime Prevention

Bittner, Egon; Broken-Windows Policing; Community-Oriented Policing: Effects and Impacts; Crime Analysis; Crime Mapping; Criminal Careers; Fingerprinting; Hot Spots; Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment; Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment; Police Reform: 1950–1970; Problem-Oriented Policing

Further Reading

Goldstein, Herman. 1977. Policing a free society. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Goldstein, Herman. 1990. Problem-oriented policing. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Kelling, George L.; Tony Pate; Duane Dieckman; Charles E. Brown. 1974. The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment: A summary report. Washington, DC: The Police Foundation.
Manning, Peter K. 1977. Police work: The social organization of policing. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Martin, Susan E.; Lawrence W. Sherman. 1986. Catching career criminals: The Washington, D.C. repeat offender project. Washington, DC: The Police Foundation.
Pate, Tony; Amy Ferrara; Robert Bowers; Jon Lorence. 1976. Police response time: Its determinants and effects. Washington, DC: The Police Foundation.
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. 1976. Task force report: The police. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Reiss, Albert J. Jr. 1971. The police and the public. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Sherman, Lawrence; Richard Berk. 1984. The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment. Washington, DC: The Police Foundation.
Skolnick, Jerome. 1966. Justice without trial: Law enforcement in a democratic society. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Sutherland, Edwin H. 1939. Principles of criminology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Wilson, James Q. 1968. Varieties of police behavior: The management of law and order in eight communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wilson, James W.; George L. Kelling. 1982. Broken windows: Police and neighborhood safety. Atlantic Monthly 249 (March): 29-38.

In this Section

Criminology, Criminology Development (including Classical Criminology, Modern Criminology, Criminology Italian School and Independent Criminology), Criminology Goals, Biological Theories of Crime (including Crime Genetic Factors and Neurological Abnormalities), Psychological Theories of Crime (including Moral Development Theories, Social Learning Theories and Personality Theories), Environmental and Social Theories of Crime (including Social Causes, Social-Structural Theories, Subcultural Theories and Economic Causes of Crime) and Criminal Opportunity.